Bharatvarsha
Bharatvarsha is named after emperor Bharata, the son of Shakuntala and Dushyanta, so Bharatvarsha means the land of Bharat. It’s said in Vishnu Purana. “The country (varsham) that lies North of the ocean and South of the snowy mountains is called Bharatvarsham, there dwell the descendants of Bharata”. Our ancient poets, philosophers and writers viewed the country as an integral unit. According to the scriptural description of the Brahmand, the entire Earth is called Bharatvarsha but particularly the area of the continent that lies South of the Himalayas is called Bharatvarsha. It is also called Aryavarta. In Rig Veda, the country named ‘Sapt Sindhau’ where Aryans were first in inhabitated. In Constitution of India, there is reference of Bharatvarsha as “India, that is Bharat”. It means India has two names India and Bharat. Bharat is the short form of Bharatvarsha.
Sabha and Samiti
A very striking feature of the Rigvedic political structure was the institution of two legislative units known as the Sabha and the Samiti. The Sabha was a body of elders and was attended by persons from noble classes Brahmanas and rich patrons. Women who were called Sabhavati also attended this assembly. Judicial matters were decided by the Sabha and it was as important as the Samiti. The Samiti was an ordinary assembly of the tribe and its members were called Visha. The king attended the Samiti and the most important work of the Samiti was to elect the king.
Justice was based on dharma and the king was the head of the judicial set up. The village head, Grammi led the villagers in time of war and attended the meetings of the Sabha and Samiti. Sabha performed judicial functions which samiti did not. Later Sabha became a small aristocratic body and Samiti ceased to exist.
Varnasrama
The division of Aryan society is based on orders of life. The whole structure of this division is called ‘Varnashram’. The life of individual Aryans was divided into four stages. These are Brahmacharya, means the student life, Grihastha or the householder’s life, Vanaprastha or the retired life and sannyasa or the devotional life. The first reference to the Varnashrama system is made in ‘Purush Sukta’ of Rig Veda.
Vedanta
It is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy. It literally means the end of Vedas with the emergence of philosophy of the Upanishads. Vedanta is also referred to as Vedanta Mimamsa (Reflection on Vedanta), Uttara Mimamsa (Reflection on the latter part of the Vedas) and Brahma Mimamsa (Reflection on Brahma). It is an umbrella for many sub-traditions ranging from dualism to non-dualism. These five sub-traditions of Vedanta include (i) Advaita (ii) Vishishtadvaita (iii) Dvaita (iv) Bheda Abheda (v) Kevala Advaita. Vedanta adopted ideas from orthodox schools like: Yoga and Nyaya. Schools like Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism shaped and influenced the doctrines of Vedanta. It had historic and central influence of Hinduism.
The three fundamental texts of Vedanta are Upanishads, Brahmasutras and Bhagwadgita. In the six schools of Hindu philosophy including Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and lastly Vedanta became predominant in India.
Purusharthas
In Hinduism, purushartha (that, which is sought by man) refers to a goal, end or aim of human existence. There are generally considered to be four such purusharthas namely: Dharma (duty, ethics). Artha (prosperity) Kama (pleasure and sensual gratification and Moksha (the pursuit of liberation). Purusharthas are the blueprint for human fulfilment.
Rina
Tri Rina concept in Hindu Dharma means that man is indebted to Gods, ancestors and sages. It is the concept that lays down social duties on an individual towards parents, guru, ancestors and Gods.
These debts are termed as Tri Rina (Three Debts) (1) Deva Rina is a debt towards Gods. It is paid by performing sacrifices or yajnas and chanting of mantras with sacred wood at the sacred alter
(i) Pitra Rina is a debt towards ancestors. It is fulfilled by begetting children. Rituals are prescribed for the welfare of children during their upkeep. (i) Rishi Rina is a debt towards the Rishis, the learned (law givers). It is paid by studying of scriptures, observing continence and fasting on these auspicious days.
Samskaras
The Dharmashastras describe the Samskaras (literally preparation arrangement) as or rituals marking important stages of life. There are 16 Samskaras of Hindus which cover the entire lifespan of a person and take them to the door steps of truth. The 16 Samskaras are Garbhandan, Pansavana, Simantonnayana, Jatakarma, Nama-karana, Nishkramana, Annaprasana Chudakarana, Karna-vedha, Upanayan and Vidyarambha, Samavartan, Vivaha, Vanaprastha, Sanyas, Antyesthi
Yajna
Yajna is a ritual of sacrifice derived from the practice in Vedic times. Yajna is a ritual of sacrificing and sublimating the hawana samagri in the fire accompanied by the chanting of Vedic mantras.
Kalpasutras lists following yajna types
(i) The Pakayajnas
(ii) Soma Yajnas
(iii) Havir Yajnas (v) Vedavratas
(iv) Panch Maha Yajna
The remaining 16 Yajnas which are one time samskaras or rituals with ‘mantras’ are Samskaras Garbhadana. Punsavana, Simant, Jatakarma, Nama-karana, Nishkramana, Annaprasana, Chudakarama, Karna-vedha, Upanayana and Vidyarambha, Samavartana, Vivaha, Vanaprastha, Sanyas Antyesthi. These are specified by the ‘Grhya sutra”.
Dasa
Dasa and related word such as Dasyu are found in the Rig Veda. The Rig Veda describes them as savages. It denoted the enemies of the ancient Aryan people described in the Rig Veda. It comes into usage with the Aryan invasion theory, which connects the Dasa with darker Dravidian speaking people. Some scholars believe that original dasa were Indo-Iranian who rejected Aryan practices (religious) but later merged with them. The concept can also be interpreted on a metaphysical front of relationship to divinity which expresses utter submission to God.
Ganarajya
The sixth century BC saw the emergence of the large number of states in Northern India which were ruled by republics or oligarchies which were called Ganarajya. K P Jayaswal laid emphasis on the term gana as a republican form of Constitution. The term ganasangha or ganarajya refers to the claim to be of equal status. According to Romila Thapar, heads of families belonging to a clan or clan chiefs in a confederacy of clans, governed the territory of the clan or confederacy through an assembly of which alone they were members.
The Constitution and form of Ganarajya is widely debated among historians where some believe that every adult population participated in the administration, others believe that it was restricted to Kshatriya class only while others point out that head of the family (joint) were allowed to participate in the administration.
The Republics were divided into three categories according to Dr KP Jayaswal
(i) Democracies or pure gana-adult population participated in the administration
(ii) Aristocracies or pure kula-selected families participated in the administration. (iii) Mixed aristocracies and democracies-it was a mixture of Kula and Gana. Ganarajya or Republican states had a unitary character and were called city republics or nigamas. The important republics of 6th century BC were (i) Shakyas of Kapilavastu (ii) Lichchavis of Vaishali (iii) Mallas of Pava (iv) Mallas of Kushinara v) Koliya of Ram agrama (vi) Bhagga of Sumsugiri (vii) Mauryas of Pippalivana (viii) Kalama of Keshapatta
Janapadas
Vedic texts point out that Aryan tribes were called ‘Janas’ Vedic Samhitas point out the term jana denotes tribe whose members believed in shared ancestory. They were originally semi-nomadic pastoral communities gradually associated with specific territories.
Initially janapada was gathering places of men, merchants and artisans akin to market place or town surrounded by villages. Later janapadas became republics or kingdoms of Vedic India. The Janapadin was the ruler of Janapada. Panini mentions 22 janapadas out of which Magadha, Avanti, Kosala and Vatsa were important.
The ordinary people of Janapada were called ‘vis’ which were further divided into gramas or unions of many families. Every janapada had a pura or chief city (capital) where the king resided.
Kautilya uses the term janapada for territory as the constituent of state. Every janapada was politically named as Rastra. Literary evidence suggests that the janapadas flourished between 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. The first time the term is found in Aitreya and Shatapatha Brahmanas.
The janapadas were administered by the following assemblies in addition to the king
(i) Sabha (Council) (ii) Paura Sabha (Executive Council) (iii) Samiti (General Assembly)
Doctrine of Karma
Karma is the universal causal law by which good bad actions determine the future modes of an individual’s existence.
The Doctrine of Karma is closely associated with the idea of re-birth. According to Hindu Philosophy, “A good action creates good karma, as does good intent. A bad action creates bad karma, as does bad intent”..
Doctrine of karma as a concept, across different Indian religions thoughts, shares certain common themes, that is -causality, ethicisation and re-birth.
Dandaniti
Dandaniti is the administration of force, or rajaniti; the conduct of kings was a severely practical science and the texts curiously dismiss the more philosophical aspects of the state and the conduct of governmental affairs.
Arthashastra
The Arthashastra is an ancient work on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy, written in Sanskrit. It is attributed to Kautilya the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. The Arthasastra was composed, expanded and redacted between the 2nd century BCE and 3rd century BCE. It was influential until the 12th century when it disappeared. It was rediscovered in 1905 by R Shamasastry who published it in 1909. The first English translation was published in 1915. It is often translated as ‘the science of politics’. The text contains 15 Adhikarans. The Arthshastra is written in prose form but there is 380 shlokas incorporated in this book.
Saptanga
Literally meaning of saptanga is the seven-limbed state. The Arthashastra is the first Indian text to define a state. Its concept of saptanga rajya considers the state as consisting of seven inter-related and inter-locking constitutional limbs or elements (angas), these are Swami (the lord), Amatya (the ministers), Janapada (the territory and the people), Durga (the fortified capital), Kosha (the treasury), Danda (justice of force) and Mitra (ally).
Dharmavijaya
The literally meaning of Dharmavijaya is lawful conquest. The concept of Dharmavijaya is associated with the king Ashoka. Ashoka’s Dharmavijaya was a unique exercise for the spread of morals inside-out. It included his peace missions to West Asia and the Greek mainlands which. carried Indian thoughts about universal peace, piety, non violence, human brotherhood to the Western world. No monarch of ancient world is credited with such cultural contact by the West.
Stupa/Chaitya
The term chaitya means a sacred space, but is more specifically used to refer to Buddhist shrines. Many of the early Buddhist cave shrines contained a stupa as the object of veneration and large independent stupas soon came to form an integral part of Buddhist monastries. The stupa represented many things in Buddhist tradition.
A stupa is a mound-like hemispherical structure containing relics-typically the remains of Buddhist that is used as a place of meditation. It stood for the axis mundi (the centre of the universe), it symbolised the passing away of the Buddha, it was a repository of relics of the Buddha and it was also a place of veneration, worship and pilgrimage for monks and laity.
Vihara
Vihara a monastery consisting of an open court surrounded by open cells assemble through an entrance porch. They were sacred in character with small stupas and images of Buddha were installed in the central court.
They were for a purpose of living, residences of monks, Viharas were made of wood and later stone-cut Viharas emerged.
Some examples of Viharas are Junnar Vihara, Konkade Vihara, Kanheri Vihara. When communities of monks grew, Mahaviharas came into existence.
Nagara Style
In Northern part of India a distinct style of temple architecture has been developed which is known as the Nagara Style of architecture. This style of temple architecture developed from 5th century AD onwards. Some of important features of Nagara style are as follows
The temples follow the Panchayatan style of temple making, which consist of subsidiary shrines laid out in a crucified ground plan with respect to the principle shrine.
- There are presence of assembly halls or mandaps in front of the principle shrine.
- There are no water tank or reservoirs present in the temple premises.
- The temples are generally built on upraised platforms. The porticos have a pillared approach.
- The Shikharas are of different type based on the size and shape.
- The ambulatory passageway or the pradakshina path around the sanctum sanatorium are carved.
Generally, the temple premises do not have elaborate boundary walls or gateways. Under the Nagara School of temple architecture, three different types of sub-schools has emerged such as
- Odisha School
- Khajuraho School
- Solanki School
Dravida Style
The South Indian temple style is different from the Nagara temple. The chief features of Dravida temple can be summarised as follows
- The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopuram.
- The shape of the main temple tower known as Vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving Shikhara of North India.
- At the entrace to South Indian temple, it is usual to find sculptures of fierce dwarapalas or the door keepers guarding the temple.
- It is common to find a large water reservoir or a temple tank. Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower or located as distinct, separate small shrines beside the main temple.
These are various sub-divisions of Dravida temples architecture . Square usually called ‘Kute’ and also ‘Caturasra’, Rectangular or shala or ayatasra, Elliptical also called Goja-Prishta or elephant backed, Circular or Uritta, Octagonal or ashtasra. The plan of the temple and shape of the Vrinana were conditioned by the iconographic nature of the consecrated deity.
Vesara Style
Vesara style of temples as an independent style created through the mixing of Nagara and Dravida styles. It was started by Chalukyas of Badami (500-753 AD). Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (750-983AD), Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (983-1195 AD) and Hoysala empire (1000-1330 AD). It was found in Deccan, parts of North India and Central India, between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna. Belur, Halebidu and Somnathpura are leading examples of the Vesara style. It is also known as Karnataka style of architecture.
- The shape of two structures over the sanctum is usually pyramidal in profile.
- Its Shikharas shorter than the Nothern shikhara tower. Five walls and superstructure are broadly circular or a straight sided coke.
- Its geometry is based on rotating a square imposed on a circle.
Bodhisatva
In Buddhism, Bhodhisatvas is someone who is on the path to attain the status of an enlightened being. It was a term primarily used to refer to Gautama Buddha in his former life. The Bodhisatva is also called a pusa. Mahayana Buddhism is based principally upon the path of Bodhisatva.
There are l8 important Bodhisattvas, who were Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, Samantabhadra, Kshitigarbha, Maitreya, Vajrapani, Sadaparibhuta, Akasagarbha etc.
Tirthankara
In Jainism, Tirthankara is a saviour and spiritual leader of dharma. Tirthankara’ literally means a ford maker. The word Tirthankara signifies the founder of a ‘tirtha’. According to Jainism, a Tirthankara is a rare individual, who has conquered the world, the cycle of death and rebirth. Tirthankara is that, who made a path for others, to follow. There is 24 Tirthankara in Jain philosophy. Rishabhanatha. was the first Tirthankara and Swami Mahavir was the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism. The Tirthankara’s teachings form the basis for the Jain Canons. They are arihants, who after attained ‘Kevalajnan’.
Alvars/Nayanars
Alvars or Azhwar’s were Tamil poet saints of South India who espoused Bhakti to Hindu God Lord Vishnu and his avatar Lord Krishna. They date between 5th century to 10th century. Its historical references say that there are 12 Alvars, Andal being the only female saint poet out of the 12 Alvars. They praised 108 (abodes), temples also known as Divya Desams of the Vaishnava deities.
They represent Vaishnava philosophy and religion. They provided a development of the system of Visistadvaita vedanta. They are also attributed to 4000 devotional Tamil hymns collectively known as Nladyira-Divya Prabandham.
They practiced different forms of devotion but the most common is called prapatti (self surrender) a form of Bhakti. The hymns of Alvars take into account 5 aspects of God Svarupa (essential nature), attributes (guna), personality (vigraha), incarnations (avatara) and activities (lila).
Amaram
The administrative system arrangements under the Vijayanagara empire came to be known as Nayankara system in which outstanding military chieftains received local grants and privileged states as Nayakas of the state. The territory under these military chiefs was called Amaran. The nayaks did not give any fixed income to the state they merely rendered military service in return for land and privileges granted to them.
Scholars have estimated that 3/4th of villages of the empire were under ‘Amaran tennur.’ The system prevalent in the Vijayanagar empire cannot be equated to the Turkish Iqta system. The nayaks were not slaves or subordinates they were hereditary territorial lords of the ruler. They promised loyalty and service to the ruler whose grant legistimised their position. They had their own administration paid part of their income to the ruler.
Raya-Rekho
Raya Rekho was a fixed standard of assessment of land revenue in the Vijayanagara empire. The assessment was based on the measurement and rates of payment so fixed and maintained.
The accounts were so arranged that the assessment of each spot of land was shown on a separate line, hence the term Rekha meaning line or row: It is also called ‘Rekhamar’, ‘mar’ meaning land of area fencing to 2 Kurgis (equal to 16 to 80 acres).
Sreni
Sreni was an association of traders, merchants and artisans. Generally, a separate sreni existed for a particular group of persons engaged in the same vocation or activity. Srenis are like guilds. Over a period of time, some srenis became very wealthy with surplus resources and acted as custodians and bankers of religious and other endowments.
For example, Sreni, ivory carvers of vidisha is accredited with sponsoring and financially supporting the construction of the Southern gateway of the stupa at Sanchi. Srenis were responsible for protecting the specific traditions of craft and trade secrets also.
Bhaga
Rig Veda mentions Bhaga as an epithet of both mortals and Gods who bestow wealth and prosperity as well as personification of a particular God Bhaga survives in the 2nd century AD inscription of Rudradaman I, where it is used as a fiscal term.
Bhaga is one of the 12 Adityas a group of deities known as the Sun God described in the Bhagvata Purana. Adityas are different from Avatars of Lord Vishnu in the form of Sun God Surya also known in Vedic traditions as Bhagavan. As Bhaga he resides in the body of all living beings Bhaga has lordship over Purva Phalguni Nakshatra. Bhaga is the bestower of fortune. In Sanskrit Bhaga means ‘a portion”.
Kara/Vishti
Kara has been interpreted as regular revenue or oppressive tax like vishti or forced labour, prevalent during post-Gupta period. Vishti were the forced labour during Gupta and post-Gupta period. During Gupta era, land taxes were increased in number and in addition, whenever the royal army passes through the country side, the local people had to feed them. The peasants had to supply animals, foodgrains, furnitures etc. For the maintenance of royal officers on duty in rural areas. In Central and Western India, the villagers were also subjected to forced labour called Vishti by the royal army and officials.
Stridhana
There was a category of property stridhana, over which the smritikaras conceded, that a women did have rights. Stridhana means women’s property, but referred specifically to certain special kinds of moveable property given to a woman on various occasions during her lifetime. These included presents (jewellery, clothes, household articles etc) given by her parents, at the time of marriage and by her relatives on other occasions. The Dharmashastra agreed, that stridhana was passed on from mother to daughter. If the marriage is performed in the form of Brahma, Daiva, Gandharba or Prajapatya, the husband of deceased woman is entitled to get the stridhan in Vedic culture, but in case of Asura, Rakshya, Paisacha form of marriage the stridhana of issueless deceased women will be taken by her father or mother.
Memorial Stones
The erection of memorials to honour the dead is an ancient and worldwide phenomenon. They were erected between 3rd century BC and 18th century AD. About 2650 hero stones the earliest dated 5th century have been discovered in Karnataka. The memorials took different forms in different countries and times.The gradual In Tamil Nadu, the act of erecting memorials gets its firm foot in the megalithic culture. transformation of the megalithic cult into the hero cult is reflected in Sangam literature. The rituals for erecting hero-stones (Nadu kal) are also mentioned in Tamil grammatical works. Specimens of hero-stones are available only from 6th century onwards.
Agraharas
Agraharas is the name given to the Brahmin quarter of a as heterogenous village. These were gifted to the Brahmins by the king. Agraharas were also known Chaturvedi-mangalams in ancient times. Agraharas at times blossomed into centres of traditional education and are well described in the ancient literary works and in the inscriptions of the various kings. They were also known as ghatoka and boya.
Sarraf
A community engaged in monetary transactions are called Sarraf. Reference of this term began to appear from the Sultanate period. It developed three distinct functions
- As money changers, the role of the Sarraf was, that he was considered an expert in judging the metallic purity of coins as well as their weight.
- He also determined the current exchange rate of specific coins.
- As bankers, they received deposits and gave loans on interest. As traders, they dealt in gold, silver and jewellery. Besides, they also issued hundis or bills of exchange.
Turkan-i-Chahalgani
Qutb-ud-din was succeeded by Iltutmish of the Slave dynasty (AD 1206-AD 1290), who made Delhi his capital. His reign was marked by his efforts in securing his throne from rivals, attacks by Chengiz Khan and the Mongol hordes. Iltutmish organised his government and made several reforms. First, he organised the ruling elite or nobility, which is known as Turkan-i-chahalgani or chalisa. It was an organisation of a group of forty loyal nobles.
Iqta
Iqta was a form of administrative grant and its nature varied according to time and place. The Iqta system was provided institutional status by Iltutmish. This system provided an agrarian system to the country while the members of the ruling class attained income without any permanent attachment to any territory under iqta system, the land of the empire was divided into several large and small Iqta and assigned to soldiers, officers and nobles. Firuz Shah Tughlaq was the first sultan, who made Iqta hereditary.
Bengal Vaishnavism
Bengal Vaishnavism or Gaudiya Vaishnavism after Bengal’s older name Gaur is unique in India in several ways. It claims, that Krishna is the supreme deity rather than an incarnation of Vishnu and that he is in external play (leela) with his beloved consort Radha.
The geographical focus of Bengali Vaishnavism is in Nadiya district, especially the town of Navadvipa, which has some of the largest and best known communities. The Vaishnavite movement arose in the 11th and 12th century AD in Bengal. The 2 offshoots of Gaudiya (also Chaitanya) Vaishnavism are Sahajiya or Tantric Vaishnavism.
Jangama
Jangama are the Shaivite order of wandering religious mendicants. They are the priests or gurus of the Shaivite, sect of the Lingayats. The word Jangam is derived from the emblem (linga) of Lord Shiva. They migrated from Karnataka in order to propagate the Shaivite cult as to act as priests for those, who do not avail the services of Brahmanas for performing religious rites.
Ain-i-Dahsala
It is also called the Zabti system was introduced by Raja Todarmal in the reign of Akbar in the year 1580-82. It was introduced to alleviate the problems arising due to fixing prices every year and doing settlements of revenue of previous years.
In this system the land cultivation and price of the produce was calculated for a period of 10 years and one tenth of this part was the part of the state for one year.
The system prevailed in regions like: Malwa, Gujarat and from Lahore to Allahabad. It remained the standard system of revenue assessment during the Mughal regime in the Deccan it was introduced by Murshid Quli Khan.
Pargana
By the middle of 14th century, the basic collection of villages as an administrative unit came to be called pargana. Choudhari was the hereditary zamindar incharge of collection of revenue in each pargana.
It was introduced in the Delhi Sultanate. The word has a Persian origin. A pargana consists of several mouzas which are the smallest revenue units consisting of one or more villages and surrounding countryside. It also consisted of several tarfs.
Baluta
The servants in the 18th century Maharashtrian village categorised as twelve baluta servants served and were maintained by the village as a territorial whole. The Bara Balutedar system is a servant-system in Maharashtra’s villages, which occurs in some castes, who used to work for farmers in their surroundings.
The balutedars, whose services are still in demand are carpenters (sutar), the barber (nhart), idol-dresser (gurav). the water-carrier (kolf), the shoe maker (chambhar), the watchman (mahar), the blacksmith (lohar), the washerman (parit), the potter (kumbhar) and the rope-maker (mang).
Jizyah
Under Islamic law, jizyah is a tax levied on a section of an Islamic state’s non-Muslim citizens. The tax was to be levied on adult males of military age and affording power. From the point of view of the Muslim rulers, jizyah was a material proof of the non-Muslims acceptance of subjection to the state and its laws.
In return, non-Muslim citizens were permitted to practice their faith, to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy, to be entitled to the Muslim states’s protection from outside aggression and to be exempted from military services and the zaqat taxes. The word jizyah is derived from the root word, that refers to ‘part’ hence taken from a part of the wealth of the non-Muslim citizens.
Zakat
It is a form of charity which is treated in Islam as a religious obligation or tax. It literally means ‘that which purifies. It is one of the five pillars of Islam. Zakat is based on the value of one’s possessions which is customarily 1/40th of total savings. Zakat collectors collect the amount and pay to the poor and needy. It is considered a way to purify one’s income and wealth which sometimes becomes impure with the ways of acquisition. It promotes a more equitable redistribution of wealth and fosters a sense of solidarity among the members of Ummah.
Madad-i-Maash
Jagirdars were given revenue assignments in lieu of cash salary, there was one another category, which was given revenue grants for their subsistence. This was the class of religious men, who were patronised by the state. These grants were known as suyurghal or Madad-i-Maash (aid for subsistence). A department, Sadr-us-sudur looked after these grants. If the aid was given in cash, it was known as wazifa.
Hundi
The Indian name for Bills of Exchange is a Hundi. It is a writter note given by one person to another, instructing a third person to pay, whoever presents it to them, a sum of money. Bills of exchange appear to have been in use in India from at least the 16th century. As a safety precaution, the bills were only written in an elaborate script, which only bankers knew how to read and write..
Shahna-i-Mandi
Alauddin Khilji’s measures did not remain confined to rural economy, but extended to the urban market as well. He is credited for issuing a set of 7 regulations, which came to be known as market control measures. He fixed the prices of all commodities from grain to cloth, slaves, cattle etc.
A controller of market, Shahna-i-mandi, Barid (intelligence officers) and Minhiyan (secret spies) were appointed. The grain-merchants were placed under the Shahna-i-mandi and sureties were taken from him. All grain carriers (the caravan) of the kingdom were brought into a single corporation (yak wujud), under the charge of Shahna-i-mandi.
Mahalwari System
It was one of the three revenue systems introduced by Britishers in India. Mahalwari system was introduced in 1833 at the time of Lord William Bentick in the central province, North-West Frontier Agra, Punjab, Gangetic Valley etc in British India.
This system of land revenue was introduced by Holt Mackenzie. It had provisions of both Zamindari system and Rayotwari system. In this system, land was divided into Mahals. Each Mahal comprises of one or more villages. The ownership rights were vested with the peasants. The village. committee was held responsible for the collection of taxes.
Sulh-i-kul
Sulh-i-kul literally means peace with all in Persian. The term is associated with the Mughal emperor, Akbar who integrated many Hindus into high positions in his empire and removed many of the civil disabilities, to which Hindus had been subject in his empire. Akbar also encouraged and participated in debates between authorities of various religious traditions and started his own syncretic religious cult. Sulh-i-kul was to become his method of judging, what was legally right or wrong within his empire and was created. Akbar understood that, he was trying to build political institutions for predominantly non-Muslim society. He wanted all his subjects to be judged equally before the law.
Hind Swaraj
Hind Swaraj written as a dialogue between the reader and the writer outlines the feelings of Mahatma Gandhi about the relationship between India and British empire as well as the attitude towards modernisation and resistance. The title of the book refers to the Indian home rule. Gandhi wrote Hind Swaraj in a boat from London to South Africa in 1909. The tract was originally written in Gujarati. Prior to Gandhi’s intervention, it was Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920) who was best known for his use of the term ‘Swaraj’. The slogan he gave was ‘Swaraj is my birth-right and I shall have it!’
Mercantilism
The first phase of British rule can be termed as exploitation by merchants in the context of mercantilism. The main objective of the East India Company was to buy as much as Indian goods as possible at the cheapest possible price. Mercantilism is the economic doctrine, in which government control of foreign trade is of paramount importance ensuring the prosperity and military security of the state.
Economic Nationalism
It is a term used to describe state economic policies, which emphasise domestic control of the economy, labour and capital formation, even if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of labour. goods and capital. It opposes globalisation in many cases or atleast it questions the benefits of unrestricted free trade.
Indian Renaissance
Indian Renaissance occurred after the emergence of the British forces, when a mass religious awakening took place in 19th centruy. The foremost reformists had undertaken the task with a lot of eagerness and enthusiasm. Renaissance stands for rebirth and Indian renaissance refers to that period, which was marked by the quest of knowledge and development of science and arts examples. Raja Rammohan Rai was known as ‘The father of Indian Renaissance,’
Economic Drain
To find out the real cause of poverty in India, more than 100 years ago Dadabhai Naoroji developed explicitly a drain theory and according to him this economic drain by the alien ruler has a bleeding drain inherent in the built-in mechanism, that extracted a large part of the revenue in the form of an export surplus from India and transfered it to England and other European countries.
Colonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. Provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India, still earlier presidency towns and collectively British India, were the administrative units under the tenancy or the sovereignty of either the East India Company or the British Crown between 1612 and 1947.
Paramountcy
Under Lord Hastings, the East India Company pursued territorial expansion and policy of ‘paramountcy’ to state that British power was more than any Indian state. The doctrine of paramountcy is the legal principle, that reconciles contradicting or conflicting laws in a federalist state. Where both the Central Government and the Provincial or State Governments have the power to create laws in relation to the same matters, the law of one government will be given priority over the other, through the doctrine.
Dyarchy
It is a system of Double-Government introduced by the Government of India Act (1919), for the provinces of British India. It marked the first introduction of the democratic principle into the executive branch of the British administration of India. Though much criticised, it signified a break through in British Indian Government and was the forerunner of India’s full provincial autonomy (1935) and independence. Dyarchy was introduced as a constitutional reform by Edwin Samuel Montagu (Secretary of State for India, 1917-22) and Lord Chelmsford (Viceroy of India, 1916-21).
Federalism
Federalism is a political concept, in which a group of members are bound together by covenant with a governing representative head. The term federalism is also used to describe a system of the government, in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units, (such as states or provinces). Federalism is a system based upon democratic rules and institutions, in which the power to govern is shared between National and Provincial/State Governments creating, what is called a Federation. The Government of India is organised along federalist lines.
Utilitarianism
It is a theory in normative ethics holding, that the proper course of action is the one, that maximises overall happiness. It is now generally taken to be a form of consequentialism. although, when Anscombe first introduced that term, it was to distinguish between old-fashioned utilitarianism and consequentialism.
Filtration Theory
According to this theory, education is to be filtered to the common people. Drop by drop, the education should go to the common public so that, at due time it may take the form of a vast stream. The Company government needed various types of workers to run the government. They wanted to have cheap servants, who work in different capacities. This aim could be fulfilled only by the educated higher class of people of India, so they started the policy of education of higher class. The British rules felt, that the educated Indians could then set an example to the lower classes.
Forward Policy
On 2nd November, 1961, the Indian Government issued a directive for the implementation of what is called the Forward Policy. This directive was passed on by the army headquarter to the area commanders concerned. The premise of the Forward Policy was based on the assurances of the Civil Intelligence Bureau, whose views were shared by the chief of the general staff. The aim of the Forward Policy were to create outposts behind advancing Chinese troops to interdict their supplies, forcing them North of the disputed line. In 1959, India started sending Indian troops and border patrols into disputed areas.
Doctrine of Lapse
This doctrine was an annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor-General of the East India Company in India between 1848 and 1856.
According to the doctrine, any princely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountcy) of the British East India Company as a Vassal state under the British subsidiary system, would automatically be annexed, if the ruler was manifestly incompetent or died without a direct heir.
Satara was the first princely state, which was took over in 1848 by East India Company. Jaipur and Sambalpur (1849), Nagpur and Jhansi (1854) and Oudh (1856) were the strong princely states annexed by Lord Dalhousie under this theory.
Khilafat Movement
The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924), was a pan-Islamic political protest campaign launched by Muslims, in British India, to influence the British Government, to protect the Ottoman Empire during the aftermath of First World War. This was an attempt by the Indian Muslim Community to unite together in support of the Turkish empire, ruled by the Khalifa, which was attacked by European powers. The Muslims considered the Khalifa as the custodian of Islam. The Khilafat Movement was organised by the All Brothers, (Mohammad All and Shaukat All) against the injustices done to Turkey (which had fought against the British) in the First World War (1914-18).
Madarasa
Madrasa is the Arabic word for any type of higher educationl institution. The Madrasa, literally means ‘a place where learning and studying take place’. It is used to mainly teaching Islamic law and theology. It is usually affiliated with a Mosque and funded by a trust waqf.
Maktab
In the medieval Islamic world, an elementary school was known Maktab. It is an elementary school for as primay education of Muslim children. It is used for teaching children in reading, writing, grammar and Islamic studies such as Qira’at.
Chauth/Sardeshmukhi
Chauth word is taken from Sanskrit, which means one-fourth. Chauth or Chauthai was an annual tax or tribute imposed from early 18th century by the Maratha empire in India. It was normally levied at 25% on revenue or produce, hence, the name. The right to assess and collect this tax was asserted first by Shivaji in the later 17th century.
The Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levy on top of the Chauth. It is a tribute paid to the king. Chauth was levied on the promise, that the Marathas will not raid the areas, which pays them Chauth. Sardeshmukhi on chauth was collected just to maintain the hereditary right of king on the tax collection.
Sarai
It is (built in towns or by the way-side) for travellers to alight and refresh themselves. These were also residential places for travellers.
Polygars
Polygars also called Palaiyaikkarar, head of Palayam whose role was to administer Palayams (territories) from their fortified centres. Their chief function was to collect taxes. maintain law and order, run local judiciary and maintain troops of the kings. They were land controlling warriors subordinate to the nayaks in the Tamil country in Vijayanagara empire.
Polygars had to maintain a fixed number of foot soldiers horses and elephants for the service of the state. The polygars also had to pay a sum of money to the central exchequer. They formed a very powerful section and sometimes, it was difficult for the government to control them. As the Vijayanagara empire declined in the later half of 16th century the polygars began to revolt against the nayakas and caused much bloodshed and war. Many of the polygars and nayakas such as those of Tanjore and Madhurai became independent from that time. Polygars wars were a series of wars fought by the coalition of Palaiyaikkarars gainst the British between 1798-1805.
Jagir (ja-means place, gir-means keeping/holding) was a piece of land held by the mansabdar, which was granted by the Sultan, in recognition of his loyal service to the crown. A jagir was technically a feudal life estate, as the grant lawfully reverted back to the monarch of death.
The jagirdar would typically reside at the capital, to serve as a minister appearing twice a day before the monarch. The jagir system, during the Mughal empire was considered as an institution, that was mainly used to reserve the surplus from the class of peasants and was also used to distribute the income. resources among the dominating classes.
Shariyat
Shariyat is the Islamic law forming the part of Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly Quran and the Hadith. It refers to God’s divine law in Arabic.
There are four sources of Shariyat
(i) The Quran
(ii) Sunnah (authentic hadith)
(iii). Qiyas (analogical reasoning
(iv) ljma (Juridical consenses)
Historically Shariyat was interpreted by independent jurists (Mufti’s).
Dastur
The Mughal Government supplied dastur-ul-amal or codes of customary practice, explaining the mode of payment of land revenue at the tehsil. Taxes were levied and expenses paid in accordance with the dastur-ul-amal. After his accession, Jahangir passed 12 orders (dastur-ul-amal) and according to the 10th order, hospitals were to be built in all big cities and physicians were to be appointed and expenditure for this purpose were to be made from the Khalisa establishment (royal treasury).
Mansab
Mansab means rank and hence, mansahdar means rank-holder. There were of 3 classes of Mansab Amir-l-azam (7000-3000), the greater nobles, Amir, noble (2500-500); mansabdar office hoider (400-20). During the reign of Akbar, the size of mansabs increased. Mansabdars were given control over an area of land, a jagir, whose revenue was to be used for maintaining troops.
Mansabdar was the generic term for military-type grading of all imperial officials of the Mughal empire. The mansabdars governed the empire and commanded its armies in the emperor’s name. Though, they were usually aristocrats, they did not form a feudal aristocracy, for neither the officers nor the estates, that supported them were hereditary.
Deshmukh
Deshmukh (a patriot) was a historical title given to a person, who was granted a territory of land in certain regions. In Marathi, desh means a country and mookh means mouth, hence deshmukh means a spokesman of a district. It was the title given to a person, who was granted a territory of land in certain regions of India, specifically Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
The granted territory was usually referred to as the deshmukhi and deshmukh was in effect the ruler of the territory, as he was entitled to the collected taxes. It was also his duty to maintain the basic services of the territory. such as police and judicial duties. It was typically a hereditary system.
Nadu
Nadu was the locality consisting of several settlements in early medieval South India. It was a more important unit than the village. The term nadu also referred to the assembly of the locality. Nadus were usually named after one of the villages and varied a great deal in size indicating, that they were not artificial administrative divisions created by the state. Clusters of villages similar to the nadu existed in the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms. Members of nadu assembly were known as the Nattar
Ur
Ur was the General Assembly of the village where local residents discussed their matters without any formal rule or procedure. It was open for all the people, seems to equal to present day Panchayati Raj System. It was most prominent salient feature of Chola Empire. We get Information about such Institution from the instruction of Utharamerur.
Ulema
In Sunni Islam, Ulama also spelled as Ulema were the guardians, trasmitter’s religious interpretors of religious knowledge of Islamic doctrine and law.
Firman
Firman was a royal decree issued by sultanate of Turkey. It is an oriental sovereign edict, a grant or permit. It comes from ‘fer’, which is to carry or harness and ‘man’ which is hand, so giving meaning to this is to lead by hand”
Satyagraha
Soul Force or Truth-Force, Satyagraha is a particular philosophy and practice within the broader overall category known as non-violent resistance or civil resistance. The term Satyagraha was coined and developed by Mahatma Gandhi, He deployed Satyagraha in the Indian Independence Movement and also during his earlier struggles in South Africa.
Swadeshi
Mahatma Gandhi was a champion of swadeshi or home economy. Gandhi’s vision of a free India was not a nation-state but a confederation of self-governing, self-reliant and self-employed. people living in village communities, deriving their right livelihood from their own produce.
Swadeshi means local-self sufficiency and the Swadeshi Movement, part of the Indian Independence Movement and the developing Indian nationalism was an economic strategy aimed at removing the British Empire from power and improving economic conditions in India by following the principles of swadeshi. Strategies of the Swadeshi Movement involved boycotting British products and the revival of domestic products and production processes.
Revivalism
It is a theory or ideology which aims at the restoration of what is considered to be an earlier belief rites, laws and ways of life In India, modern conditions raised questions about the relevance of the existing beliefs and customs, some thinkers tended to invoke the past to condemn the existing evils yet replace them with what they considered existed in earlier age. Revivalism in Hinduism is most prominent. Prominent revivalist in India was Dayananda Saraswati. The aim of the movement was to make religion more popular and more influential.
Communalism
India is a vast country, where people belonging to many religions live. Communalism is a strong sense of loyalty to the interests of one particular group (religions, ethnic etc) rather than to society as a whole which can lead to extreme behaviour or Violence towards others. By communalism, we mean the opposition of religious communities to each other. It means to distinguish people on the basis of religion. In India, the origin and growth of communalism can be traced to the pre-Independence days and the policy of the divide and rule by the British rulers.
Orientalism
It is a term used by art historians, literary and cultural studies scholars for the initiation and depiction of aspects of middle Eastern and East Asian cultures by American and European writers, designers and artists. In India’s context main orientalist are James Princep, William, Jones, Charles Wilkins, HH Wilson etc.
Oriental Despotism
The concept of ‘oriental Despotism’ popularised by the German sociologist Karl Wittfogel. It is a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power. In other words, it is also known as hydraulic society. In sum, oriental despostism is an intellectually stimulating concept.
De-Industrialisation
The urban industry of India, at the beginning of the 19th century, was mainly in the nature of handicrafts, producing fine textiles or other luxury products for the aristocracy. In handicraft, Indian urban industry had reached a high water-mark of excellence and enjoyed a worldwide reputation.
The urban industry occupied a favourable and important position in India’s economic activity. Inspite of this, we were confronted with the problem of rapid decline, both in artistic excellence and economic importance of these handicrafts, a decline which began as early as end of 18th century and became very marked by the mid of 19th century. This process came de-industrialisation. to be known as
Subsidiary Alliance
The doctrine of subsidiary alliance was introduced by Marques Wellesley, British Governor-General of India from 1798 to 1805. Early in his governorship. Wellesley adopted a policy of non-intervention in the princely states, but he later adopted the policy of forming subsidiary alliances Under this doctrine, Indian rulers under British protection surrendered control of their foreign affairs to the British Most disbanded their native armies, instead maintaining British troops within their states to protect them from attack
Evangelicalism
It is a Protestant Movement, which began in the 17th century and became an organised movement with the emergence (around 1730) of the methodists in England and the pietists among lutherans in Germany and Scandinavia. It is a religious movement, that de-emphasises the pietism of the individual, requiring him/her to meet certain active commitments.
Bhudan/Bhoodan Movement
Bhudan or Bhoodan literally means land-gift. The Bhoodan Movement was a Voluntary Land Reform Movement in India started by Acharya Vinoba Bhave in 1951. Bhoodan movement was started at Poochampally village, (Andhra Pradesh) now known as Bhoodan Poochampally.
The movement was an attempt at land reform and it intended to solve the land problem in the country in a noble way by making land available to the most disadvantaged class of Indian society by distribution of land by voluntary donations.
Panchsheel
The five principles of peaceful co-existence known in India as the Panchsheel (Panch five, Sheel: virtues) are a set of principles to govern relations between states. Their first formal codification in treaty form was an agreement between China and India in 1954. They were enunciated in the Preamble to the Agreement(with exchange of notes) on trade and intercourse. between Tibet region of China and India’, which was signed at Peking on 29th April, 1954.
This agreement stated 5 principles
- Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and Sovereignty
- Mutual non-agression.
- Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs
- Equality and mutual benefit.
- Peaceful co-existence.
Mixed Economy
Mixed economy implies demarcation and harmonisation of the public and private sectors. In it, free functioning of the market mechanismn is not permitted and the govemment intervenes or regulates the private sector in such a way, that the two sectors become mutually reinforcing. A mixed economy represents and achievable balance between individual initiative and social goals. Planning and market mechanisms are so adjusted, that each is used for realising the objectives of the economy, to which it is most suited. In India, the concept of mixed economy evolved, so, that both the private and public sectors could contribute to the process of growth.
Leftwing
In general, the left-wing tends to uphold a secular society, egalitarian and multi-cultural. Depending on the balance of all these factors, the political left is divided into many branches ideologically. Left front is an alliance of Indian leftist parties. In West Bengal and Tripura, there are state level committees of the left front.
In West Bengal, some of the left front parties are the Communist Party of India (Marxist), the CPI, All India Forward Bloc; in Tripura it is-CPI (M), CPI, RSP and AIFB; in Kerala- CPI (M), CPI, RSP and AIFB, in Maharashtra-parties such as Peasant and Workers Party of India, Kamgar Aghadi and allies of the left front. Left wing politics supports social equality and egalitarianism. They the society where, there is no inequalities.
Socialism
Political idea that is based on the belief that all people are equal and the money and property should be equally E divided. Socialism is a range of economic and social system. V It is characterised by social ownership of the means of production and worker’s self-management as well as the political theories and movements associated with them. Socialism believes that all people are equal and that money and property should be equally divided.
Hindu Code Bills
Following independence for India, the post-colonial government led by Jawaharlal Nehru, completed the codification and reform of Hindu Personal Law, a process, that had begun by the British Government.
Accounting to the British policy of non-interference, reform of personal law should have arisen from a demand within the Hindu community.
This was not the case, as there was significant opposition from various Hindu politicians, organisations and devotees, who saw themselves unjustly singled out as the sole religious community, whose laws were to be reformed.
However, the administration saw such codification as necessary in order to unify the Hindu community, which ideally would be a first step towards unifying the nation.
They succeeded in passing 4 Hindu code Bills which were
- The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 2. The Hindu Succession Act, 1956
- Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956
- Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956
Plagiarism
It is the wrongful appropriation, stealing and publication of another author’s language, thoughts, ideas or expressions and the representation of there as one’s own original work without giving credit to that person.
It is an idea emerged in Europe in 18th century with the coming of the Romantic Movement. There are different types of Plagiarism
(i) Direct Plagiarism
(ii) Self Plagiarism
(iii) Mosaic Plagiarism
(iv ) Accidental Plagiarism
Ethics and Morality in History Writing
Ethics and morality in history writing is needed for ensuring unbiased writing of history. These are the list of prescriptions for ethical conduct during history writing.
The list of ethics and morality in history writing
(i) Do not plagiarize
(ii) Faithfully transcribe your resources
(iii) Do not ignore contradictory evidence
(iv) Acknowledge the biases in your material
(v) Maintain transparency in research
(vi) Use the most up to date data available
(vii) Always back up the research
(Viii) Be professional