In simpler terms, philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, morality, and reality. It’s about critically examining these big ideas and trying to understand them better. Philosophers use reasoning and logic to explore these questions, not necessarily relying on scientific experiments. It’s the pursuit of wisdom by analyzing the basic beliefs we hold and the world around us.
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY
To define a concept is to fix its bounds or limits, to determine with precision, to describe it accurately, or to fix the meaning of it. This definition is an explanation of the exact meaning of the concept. The universal concepts of human thought, in its urge for more and more clarification, always need defining them. The philosopher has constantly to reflect on these concepts till they are mature enough to interpret the Reality corresponding to them, with the utmost approximation. Besides logical analysis, such a reflection is based on the meaning of the concept which, in turn, is related to the experience to which it corresponds. Thus, in the ultimate analysis, to define any concept the Philosopher must proceed with the double process of logical analysis of the concept and critical reflection on the experience for which it stands. The philosopher in his synoptic vision would only point out the broad and general characteristics of a particular concept. Obviously, a definition of philosophy would not define this or that philosophy but philosophy in general.
INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY
We are proceeding with a twofold process of logical analysis of the concept and a critical survey of the historical treatment of the subject. As a general rule, the history of philosophy is a collection of the reasoned interpretation of the experiences of the individuals representing different aspects of Truth. Hence, what is desirable is not a destructive criticism of other approaches, but the assessment of their values in a whole and to find in it a reasonable place for each of them.
HISTORICAL REVIEW
Aristotle devised Metaphysics to be studied after physics. Thus etymologically speaking, meta- physics means ‘after-physics’. It is the last science, the science, the science of science. It is also the first science, the mother of all sciences. He also calls it the science of being thought such a science is impossible since science deals only with process of phenomena. Philosophy deals with Being as much as with Becoming. Thus it includes sciences within its ken. Man experiences eternity as well as change. Philosophy is an explanation of the total experience of man seeks the integral truth.
The rationalists in the early dawn of Modern Philosophy defined metaphysics as knowledge deduced from principles. This self-evident attempt at rationalization or mathematization of philosophy sought to make it more exact. But metaphysics with thought as its instrument, should never dream of being exact like mathematics since thought, though real, cannot be identified with Reality. To be inexact is both a weakness as well as the strength of metaphysics. The philosopher is a lover of knowledge and never the sole possessor of it. The complete comprehension of Infinite by Finite is a logical impossibility and yet the destiny of man lies in progressing for an ever near approximation to it.
Human thought which always bifurcates Reality into form and essence, subject and object, ‘that’ and ‘what’ can never truly represent Reality which is an all-inclusive spiritual unity. Philosophy is not a matter of logico-mathematical deduction or induction. The laws of Geometry are not applicable to Metaphysics any more than they are applicable to Chemistry of Physiology. Every new field of experience has its own laws. Philosophy, the moment it losses touch with the immediate experience of Reality, forgets its way in the wilderness of human ratiocination which lead us nowhere.
The necessity of philosophy and experience-basing was loudly proclaimed by the opposite school of empiricists represented by Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. Locke pointed out that for its content the form and instrument of metaphysics is dependent on experience. This was a great corrective to the rationalistic extreme and yet by confining metaphysics to mere sense experience, the empiricists shifted the balance in the opposite direction which led to the negation of all metaphysics. This is obvious since if sense experience is the only experience, philosophy is a mere wild goose chase.
To be itself, philosophy should widen its field to include all types of experience, religious, moral, scientific, spiritual, etc. Hume defined the supremacy of Reason. But if reason is a slave to passion, the refutation of reason, being itself a ratiocination, stands self-condemned. Hume’s “criticism of rationalism and reduction and absurdum of empiricism” however, gives a lesson that philosophy should not forget. Reason is its surest instrument but to get its data, it should rely on experience.
Kant combines the Beconian idea of the extension of knowledge with the Cartesian idea of certainty. But he also fights shy of all metaphysics in the ultimate sense. Only the metaphysics of Nature and metaphysics of knowledge is possible. Thus, it was left to Hegel to revive in full vigour the ultimate status of philosophy. The object of philosophy, according to him, is to search out the concept, the purpose, the significance of phenomena and to assign to these their corresponding positions in the world and in the system of knowledge. It systematizes a true view of Philosophy as a systematization of values and facts. But, by the identification of Nature with Logic Hegel arrives at an intellectualism which led Bradley to assert with a vengeance. “Metaphysics is the finding of bad reasons for what we believe on instinct.”
This curt remark is a timely warning to all those who attempt to reduce to Reality of mere thought but the rejection of all metaphysical speculation as bad reasons appears to be too sweeping. The intellect is not rejected in Spirit but transformed into a better instrument to receive the truth.
Bergson’s approach here seems to be more balanced than that to Bradley. Philosophy, according to him, must take into account not only sensory but also mental and intuitive experiences. It must be based on Real experience. Bergson shows a true insight into the problem when he points out that the difference between various schools of philosophy is because of their fragmentary glimpse of Reality, supplemented by different kinds of intellectual interpretation and elaboration. He suggests that by mutual comparison and elimination of peculiarities, philosophers may grasp the universal character of basic Reality.
Again, philosophy according to Bergson “does not only facilitate speculation; it gives us also more power to act and live. For with it we feel ourselves not longer isolated in humanity, humanity no longer seems isolated in the Nature that it dominates.” Finally Bergson in its usual capacity in practical life, intellect working on data supplied by sense-perception. Otherwise, the intellect may cooperate with intuition by assembling the data of intuition and forming fluid concepts. Intuition and reason are equally indispensable instruments of Philosophy.
Contemporary thought witnesses a chaos in the field of Metaphysics. All sorts of arguments have been advanced to support widely divergent views of Reality. All kinds of reactions are raising heads under big-sounding names of ‘isms.’ All types of methods have been put to the test. The purpose of Nature beneath all this burning cauldron of ideologies, however, seems to be the manifestation of an integral philosophy which may reconcile all and transcend all, and rouse itself from its dogmatic slumber. A true philosophy is the intellectual search for the fundamental truth of things.
It is generally agreed by all that philosophy must be based on experience but as we have already seen, often the term experience has been limited to certain specific regions. The root fallacy underlying all the conflicting schools of philosophy is a shift from the centre to periphery, an exaltation of part as whole, a dogmatic denial of everything beyond the limited ken of intellect and finally, an unwarranted application of the logic of finite to the matters of the Infinite. “The work of philosophy” as Sri Aurobindo rightly points out, “is to arrange the data given by the various means of knowledge, excluding none, and put them in synthetic relation to the one truth, the one supreme and universal reality.”
Philosophy should be all comprehensive, affirmative, synthetic, and spiritual. Philosophy, meaning love of wisdom (philos-love, sophia=wisdom) should be distinguished from mere opinion. Knowledge, as the Indians conceived it, is the knowledge of that by knowing which everything else can be known. Thus philosophy is the knowledge of Ultimate Reality. But Ultimate Reality, as Indian philosophy truly maintains, is not only Existence but also Consciousness and Bliss. Hence, philosophy, as the quest after the ultimate truth, is the science of value par excellence. It should not only criticise facts but also satisfy, religion and science. To quote Sri Aurobindo, “It should be a discovery of the real reality of things by which human existence learn its law and aim and the principle of its perfection.”
DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY
A beginner in philosophy is perturbed to find that different philosophers have given different definitions of philosophy. While some philosophers have laid emphasis on psychological facts, others have given more importance to values. According to John Dewey, “Whenever philosophy has been taken seriously, it has always been assumed that it signified achieving a wisdom that would influence the conduct of life.”
On the other hand, according to Windelband, philosophy is “…the critical science of universal values.” While there are many differences in Indian and Western definitions of philosophy, one finds widely different definitions presented by Western philosophers also. Of these definitions, some emphasize the critical aspect of philosophy while others emphasize its synthetic aspect. Some examples of these two types of definitions of philosophy are as follows:
Philosophy is a critical method of approaching experience. Examples of this type of definition are as follows:
Egar S. Brightman: “Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method of approaching experience rather than a body of conclusion about experience.”
“It is not the specific content of these conclusions, but the spirit and method by which they are reached, which entitles them to be described as philosophical…”
C. J. Ducasse: “Were I limited to one line for my answer to it, I should say that philosophy is a general theory of criticism.”
Philosophy is a comprehensive synthetic science. The following definitions of philosophy emphasize its synthetic aspect :
Joseph A. Legihton: “Philosophy like science, consists of theories of insights arrived at as a result of systematic reflection.”
Herbert Spencer: “Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science.”
Roy Wood Sellars: “Our subject is a collection of sciences, such as the theory of knowledge, logic, cosmology, ethics, and aesthetics, as well as a unified survey.”
The above-mentioned definitions of philosophy show that while some philosophers have mainly emphasized critical philosophy, others have defined it as a synthetic discipline. In fact both these viewpoints are one-sided because philosophy is both critical as well as synthetic. Literally speaking, the word ‘philosophy’ involves two Greek words- Philo’ meaning love, and ‘Sophia’ meaning knowledge. Thus literally speaking, philosophy means love of wisdom. It should be noted here that the definition of philosophy is different from the sense in which the word “Darshan” has been taken in India. The literal meaning of philosophy shows that the philosopher is constantly and everywhere engaged in the search for truth. He does not bother so much to arrive at final conclusions and continues with his search for truth throughout his life. His aim is the pursuit of truth rather than its possession. Those who enjoy journeys do not care so much about the destination, neither are they perturbed when the destination is lost in sight in spite of the continued long journey.
In an effort to define philosophy, one arrives at the difficulty that there is no genus in this case and also no difference. In defining a science one points out to the genus science and also to the particular area of the particular science which differentiates it from others. This is however, not possible in the case of philosophy because philosophy is one and not many. Hence in order to arrive at the meaning of philosophy you will have to discuss its problems, attitude, method, process, conclusions, and results. In brief, philosophy is a process of philosophy solving some characteristic problems through characteristic methods, from a characteristic attitude, and arriving at characteristic conclusions and results. Some might find this definition very vague and inadequate. But while defining science, do we not say that science is scientific or that it is a method and can we understand this definition of science without understanding the scientific method? When science cannot be understood without knowing the scientific method, how can we hope to understand philosophy without knowing the philosophical method? Again, in understanding the definition of science we are required to understand not only scientific problems and scientific conclusions because all these together form a science. Therefore, what is vague and inadequate if we say that in order to understand philosophy one must understand the attitude, problems, activity, conclusions, and results peculiar to it? This will also clarify the distinction between philosophy and science which has been forgotten by many philosophers.
In a nutshell:
Philosophy as a Systematic Inquiry:
Philosophy isn’t just random pondering. It’s a systematic approach to questioning and analyzing fundamental issues. It delves into the very nature of existence, knowledge, value, and reality, employing reasoned arguments and rigorous logic.
The Quest for Wisdom:
The core of philosophy lies in the pursuit of wisdom. It’s not simply about accumulating facts, but about seeking a deeper understanding of ourselves, the universe, and our place within it.
Philosophers challenge assumptions and established beliefs, encouraging us to think critically about the world around us.
Branches of Inquiry:
Philosophy encompasses a vast landscape of thought, with various branches focusing on specific areas.
Epistemology examines the nature and limits of knowledge.
Metaphysics explores the fundamental nature of reality.
Ethics delves into questions of morality and right vs. wrong.
Logic provides the tools for clear and reasoned thinking.
Historical Context:
Defining philosophy also involves understanding its historical context. It emerged as a way to understand the world before the rise of modern science. Philosophical inquiry has played a crucial role in shaping human thought and various disciplines throughout history.
Relevance in the Modern World:
While science has become the primary tool for understanding the physical world, philosophy remains relevant. It equips us with critical thinking skills, allowing us to analyze complex issues, assess arguments, and make informed decisions. It also helps us grapple with ethical dilemmas arising from technological advancements and social changes. In essence, defining philosophy goes beyond a simple explanation. It’s a journey of exploration, a quest for wisdom, and a way of life that encourages us to think critically about the world and ourselves.
